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Cultural Change in Iran: Women's Rights and the Middle Class
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2024-03) Zahirinejad, Mahnaz
The influence of Western culture and the efforts of domestic intellectuals merely scratched the surface of pre-existing and traditional practices towards women in nineteenth-century Iran. However, they led to the rise of social movements, such as the women's rights movement. Modernisation and economic growth drove ongoing processes of industrialization and urbanization during the twentieth century in Iran. Modernization also changed the social structure by creating a new middle class. It is expected that economic growth and educational attainment would empower the new middle class to demand greater political accountability, which, in turn, would lead to women's empowerment. The new middle class participated in the 1979 revolution, the outcome of which was to accelerate the rise of religious leadership. The revolutionary government renewed traditional Shiʿite practices, including traditional norms concerning women. Since the revolution, despite the imposition of Islamic law, the level of literacy and access to higher education, particularly for women, has escalated. This has led to women's awareness of their rights and their struggles to realize them in practice. However, unexpectedly, the new middle class hesitated in turning revolutionary and in joining the protestors. This research assumes that education enables women to confront their traditional roles in the family. Nevertheless, changing women's position is a process of cultural change that is coherent with both socio-economic development and the rise of a strong middle class.
Korepetycje jako obrona klas średnich przed deklasacją społeczną na przykładzie społeczności regionalnej Podkarpacia
(PEDAGOGIUM, 2015) Długosz, Piotr
Celem artykułu jest analiza zjawiska korepetycji wśród młodzieży. Korzystanie z korepetycji można ujmować jako formę obrony klas średnich przed deklasacją społeczną. Ta reakcja pojawia się w warunkach umasowienia edukacji wyższej. Klasy średnie starają się zapewnić swoim dzieciom przewagę edukacyjną i zwiększyć ich szanse życiowe. Na peryferiach to zjawisko przybiera na sile, gdyż wykształcenie stanowi cenny kapitał wymieniany na inne dobra. Do analiz zostały wykorzystane badania sondażowe zrealizowane wśród uczniów szkół gimnazjalnych i maturalnych w regionie. Korzystanie z korepetycji było skorelowane z kapitałem kulturowym, ekonomicznym i społecznym. Uczestnictwo w korepetycjach było też związane z wysoką pozycją wyższego wykształcenia w systemie wartości, wysokimi aspiracjami edukacyjnymi i zawodowymi, orientacją merytokratyczną i antyegalitarną. Korepetycje uczniów wpisują się w styl życia klas średnich. Stanowią narzędzie w walce o zachowanie statusu społecznego.
The structure of income inequality with particular emphasis on the economic middle class
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2019) Szymańska, Anita
This study presents the main facts related to the development of income inequalities in OECD countries in recent years. In particular, the focus was on analysing the economic position of the middle class (middle income class), which is often neglected in analyses, in favour of the two extreme income groups, i.e. the poverty sphere and the group of the richest. It is worth filling this gap because the middle class is the backbone of modern society and decisively determines the possibilities of economic development. The analysis of the coefficients allowing the estimation of the size and affluence of the middle class indicates that this class is highly diversified among OECD countries. In countries such as: Slovakia, Slovenia, Norway, the Czech Republic, the Netherlands, Denmark, Hungary, Finland, Belgium, Sweden and Austria, there is a relatively large and affluent middle class. In contrast, in Anglo-Saxon countries, the middle class is relatively small and moderately affluent. The article empirically confirms the hypothesis that higher income inequalities are accompanied by middle-class erosion. Using the basic income ratio, in the form of the Gini coefficient for disposable income, a very strong negative correlation was identified both between this coefficient and the coefficient determining the size of the middle class (-0.91) and between the Gini coefficient and the coefficient determining the affluence of the middle class (-0, 84). Attention is paid to possible causes of the occurrence of the phenomenon of economic polarization. Proposals for solutions in the field of socio-economic policy aimed at limiting the scale of observed phenomena were also presented.