Nierówności społeczne a wzrost gospodarczy z. 63(3)/2020

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Population instability and EU-production function anomaly
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Młodkowski, Paweł
The purpose of the study is to present the problematic situation when capturing the economic growth mechanism in the European Union. Due to intra-EU migration, the prominent production function framework fails to deliver consistent results. Estimation of structural parameters on data covering the post-accession period up to 2016 delivered a negative (!) assessment of the contribution of “labour” to output for most of the new member states. This result called for further investigations, and a holistic interpretation. It seems that this is the first time a methodological study on the production function framework offers an explicit formulation of the requirements for this method to be effectively employed in output investigations. In short, the production function can be used for cases where the growth mode is extensive, while arguments display declining or ascending trends. However, when the growth mode is intensive, while any of the arguments decline in value, this particular framework will become invalid for capturing the growth mechanism. The observed failure of the production function calls for introducing a new term to the economic growth literature: EU-production-function-anomaly. The method seems to be a far-reaching simplification. The reason for utilizing a very general formulation (excluding human capital and technology) is motivated by the focus on the demographic developments responsible for the anomaly.
The “Family 500+” programme versus the economic activity of women in Poland
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Krajewski, Krzysztof; Zalega, Tomasz
The “Family 500+” programme was introduced by the Act on State Aid for Child Support. It differs from many other public programmes in that it has deeply penetrated the general awareness of Poles, which may result from the amount of the benefit, its simplicity, media coverage and the feeling that this policy directly affects people’s lives. There are comments about the impact of the programme on the condition of the labour market. It is believed that to some extent it discourages some women from taking up work, thereby potentially causing their economic activity to decline and unemployment to increase over the longer time frame. Undoubtedly, “Family 500+” is already a very large challenge for the state budget. It is highly probable that the huge funding needed to cover benefits will grow each year, constituting an important government transfer. The goal of the paper is to depict the relationship between “Family 500+” and the economic activity of women in Poland. This study is a research exercise. Quantitative methods were used, including: logistic regression modelling and Holt forecasting. The analysis suggests the conclusion that “Family 500+” has contributed to the reduction of extreme poverty in households with children but also has affected the economic activity of women in Poland, in particular younger ones, aged 25–34 years, who have low educational attainments and live in poorer voivodships. The analysis of micro data from the Human Capital Balance study has clearly confirmed that “Family 500+” negatively affects the likelihood of being economically active, which holds true not only for women at a certain age or of a certain background, but for all those surveyed.
Efficiency of the research and development activities of technical universities in Poland
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Łącka, Irena; Brzezicki, Łukasz
In the 21st century knowledge-based economy, long-term economic growth and development depend on the ability to use the knowledge and technology so as to create product, process, organisational, marketing and even social innovations. The knowledge and technology, human resources and social capital (facilitating the transfer of technology from the world of science to the economy), comprise the most important production factors today. Research and development (R&D) activities are among the diverse determinants affecting the economy’s ability to innovate. They are carried out by public technical universities. One of the tasks that these entities face is to conduct basic, industrial (applied) research and development works. Their results can then be transferred to industrial and service enterprises as novel solutions. Research and development activities of universities are financed mainly from public sources, which suggests the need to assess the efficiency of this task. This can be done with the use of various methods, e.g. the non-parametric DEA method. The purpose of the paper is to measure the efficiency of research and development activities of public technical universities in Poland with the aid of the DEA method. The fourteen universities which in the years 2015–2017 reported to the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (MNiSW) were included in the study. The efficiency of the universities in filing new patent solutions and being granted patents was analysed. The results acquired indicate very low and low efficiency of most Polish technical universities. This is due both to a small number of patent applications and a small number of patents granted. In the examined period, the group of most efficient technical universities in both aspects comprised 4 to 5 universities.
Changes in household income distribution after the introduction of social policy programmes in Poland
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Ulman, Paweł
The aim of the paper is to analyse changes in the distribution of income of Polish households during the implementation and functioning of social policy programmes in Poland. Attention is paid to social groups that experienced a difficult economic situation, in particular marriages with dependent children. The added value of the research lies in the in-depth comparative analysis of the distribution of income and its distance in cross-section and time, based on individual data from the Household Budget Survey for two periods – before the implementation of the programmes and during their full operation. In order to compare the income distributions, statistical analysis methods were applied to the empirical income distributions. In addition to the commonly known and basic numerical characteristics of the distributions, a distribution distance measure and an income gap ratio were used. All calculations were based on individual data from the Household Budget Survey carried out in 2015 and 2018. As a result of the calculations, it was shown that in the analysed period there were significant changes in the distribution of income among the Polish population in terms of average income and income inequality. The former increased substantially, while the latter decreased, including between social groups. The results show that the social policy programmes implemented in Poland after 2015 contributed significantly to raising the level of income of most members of society and reducing economic inequalities.
The “Family 500+” programme and female labour force participation in Poland. Demographic and economic determinants
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Bartosik, Krzysztof
The paper investigates the effect of child cash benefit “Family 500+” on the female labour supply in Poland, taking into account demographic and cyclical determinants. The study is based on the Labour Force Survey (LFS) and Polish Central Statistical Office quarterly data. The analyses cover the period of 2016–2018. The Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) is the measure of labour supply. The analysis uses a counterfactual method to determine the impact of demographic and behavioural changes on female labour supply. To identify the causes of the economic inactivity of women (adopted by LFS), decomposition of the growth rate of economically inactive women is applied. The effect of the business cycle on female labour supply is analysed using OLS recursive regression. The study found that the LFPR of women aged 25–44 decreased after 2015. This was related to the cash transfers under the “Family 500+” programme and the increasing number of economically inactive women by reason of “family and household responsibilities”. At the same time, changes in the demographic structure contributed positively to the LFPR of women aged 25–44, while the business cycle did not have a significant impact on it. OLS recursive regression showed that in the 25–44 age group, the introduction of “Family 500+” coincided with changes in the relationships between the LFPR, the percentage of the “discouraged”, economically inactive women by reason of “family responsibilities” and the unemployment rate.
Regional household poverty and mobility analysis – a transition probability approach
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Mowczan, Damian
The main objective of this paper was to estimate and analyse transition-probability matrices for all 16 of Poland’s NUTS-2 level regions (voivodeship level). The analysis is conducted in terms of the transitions among six expenditure classes (per capita and per equivalent unit), focusing on poverty classes. The period of analysis was two years: 2015 and 2016. The basic aim was to identify both those regions in which the probability of staying in poverty was the highest and the general level of mobility among expenditure classes. The study uses a two-year panel sub-sample of unidentified unit data from the Central Statistical Office (CSO), specifically the data concerning household budget surveys. To account for differences in household size and demographic structure, the study used expenditures per capita and expenditures per equivalent unit simultaneously. To estimate the elements of the transition matrices, a classic maximum-likelihood estimator was used. The analysis used Shorrocks’ and Bartholomew’s mobility indices to assess the general mobility level and the Gini index to assess the inequality level. The results show that the one-year probability of staying in the same poverty class varies among regions and is lower for expenditures per equivalent units. The highest probabilities were identified in Podkarpackie (expenditures per capita) and Opolskie (expenditures per equivalent unit), and the lowest probabilities in Kujawsko-Pomorskie (expenditures per capita) and Małopolskie (expenditures per equivalent unit). The highest level of general mobility was noted in Małopolskie, for both categories of expenditures.
Gender differences in income distributions in Poland
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Włodarczyk, Julia
The paper presents results of a descriptive analysis of income distributions as well as top income inequality among women and men in Poland. The analysis is based on the dataset provided by the Council for Social Monitoring (2019). Throughout 2003–2015 their panel survey included, for example, a question on individual net monthly income in the past three months. In order to reduce differences associated with the age of entering and exiting the labour market on declared income levels (especially pensions), the calculations include only women and men aged 25–60 years. The analysis of income distributions of women and men in Poland is based on standard measures such as mean income, median income and related measures, as well as the Gini coefficient, Theil index and entropy index. It is supplemented by kernel density estimates and results of simultaneous quantile regressions that demonstrate differences between women and men across income groups. The analysis of top income inequality includes comparisons of subsamples consisting of top 3% earners in each group. The share of women in the top percentiles is then calculated and discussed. The analysis shows different dynamics related to the incomes of women and men, which provides support for including business cycle considerations in the analysis of income inequalities and their gender aspects.
Inequality of opportunity – gender bias in education in Pakistan
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Tusińska, Magdalena
The subject matter of the paper is inequality of opportunity (IO). Contemporarily, as part of IO, gender bias in education is most likely to be a constraint for growth and development in developing countries. The focus is on gender bias in education in Pakistan, which is a widely discussed problem thanks to the Nobel Prize laureate Malali Yousufzai. The goal is to present the premise and potential consequences of unequal access to education for Pakistanis, and to bring the specifics of the country into clearer focus. The thesis is that gender bias in education in Pakistan is determined by various and deeply rooted factors that place equal access to education in the realm of a distant goal, hampering the growth and development of the economy. The research methods used were a critique of the literature, analysis of statistical data, documents and online sources as well as elements of case study. Plans concerning education have been sketched in SDG-4 and in the document “Pakistan 2025”, but despite some improvements, Pakistan is still a country where one’s future depends on whether one is male or female. A lack of access to education for girls is part of a broader landscape of gender and spatial inequality. The findings suggest that the main circumstances for the exclusion of girls from education are culture, poverty and the state. If recommendations for these areas are not implemented, gender bias will remain one of the barriers to the growth and development of Pakistan.
The impact of agricultural policy on income diversity among farmers in the European Union in 2005–2017
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Smędzik-Ambroży, Katarzyna; Sapa, Agnieszka
The aim of paper is to answer to the question whether the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy reduces the differences in the average agricultural income between the EU-15 countries and those that joined the EU in 2004. The hypothesis was assumed that the CAP subsidies reduce the differences in agricultural income between these two groups of countries. Spreads between average income of farmers from the old and new members were calculated. The analysis is carried out in two variants. In the first one, the agricultural income does not include the CAP support, in the second one the agricultural income covers all CAP subsidies. The spatial scope of research involves two groups of countries: EU-15 (Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Finland, Austria and Sweden) and EU-8 (the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Hungary and Slovenia). The subjective scope of the survey covers representative farms from the EU countries (representing 4,045,300–5,295,930 farms in the EU countries, depending on the investigated year). The time frame of the analyses concerns the years 2005–2017. The data from the Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) are used. The study positively verifies the hypothesis that: subsidies from the CAP cause a decrease in the differences in average agricultural income between the EU-15 and the EU-8 countries. This contributes to an increase in economic sustainability and in the territorial cohesion of agriculture for the EU countries.
Digital technological platforms – an opportunity or a threat to quality work?
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Ostoj, Izabela
Digital technological platforms that facilitate the provision of many services are a relatively new development in the economy, especially in the labour market. As they are becoming increasingly prevalent, the characteristics of this business model are gradually revealed. The model creates many novel ways to make goods available and generate income, but it also translates into a new quality of work. In the discussion of the labour market segment operating based on technological platforms, the world literature tends to employ the concepts of the gig economy and cybertariat, which are unequivocally negative in their connotations. The paper discusses the relationship between technological innovations and work. It aims to determine the characteristics of work carried out through digital technological platforms in the cross-section of the major dimensions of quality work. The paper presents the verification of the research hypothesis assuming that the business model adopted by digital technological platforms threatens the standards of quality work. The analysis uses the methodology designed by the author and employs the criteria developed by the European Anti-Poverty Network, constituting the quintessence of the contemporary approach to the issue in the European Union. Its main conclusion is that the gig economy segment is highly heterogeneous, which makes it difficult to assess and discuss the problems arising in this segment and their solutions. In consequence, it requires a clarification through adequate classifications and identification of problem groups. However, the research results reveal that a significant part of the gig economy generates very low quality work.
Institutional bases of household income dispersion in Poland and in France. A retrospective analysis
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Gruszewska, Ewa
Household income dispersion in Poland is growing systematically. Since the late 1970s, the Gini index has increased from 0.252 (1975) to 0.313 (2016). At the same time in France, the ratio has dropped from 0.34 (late 1970s) to 0.293 (2016). A higher income dispersion is also observed among various occupations and across genders. The ratio of minimum to average wages has increased from 33.7% (1975) to 45.45% (2019). The research period covers the period of the centrally planned economy in Poland, when income leveling was an effect of government policy, and that of the market economy, which caused significant income disparities. The research problem is the growing household income dispersion in Poland. The aim of the study was to determine the institutional sources of increasing income dispersion. The study involved a comparative analysis of income dispersion in the years 1975–2017 in the context of institutional changes taking place in these countries, especially after 1990. The author applied a hypothetico-deductive method. Having analysed income dispersion, the author made a hypothesis regarding the influence of institutional changes on this phenomenon and presented the groups of institutional factors. The conducted research indicated inequalities in Poland grew mainly as a result of high dynamics in the income of the highest earners (top 10% and 1%). The social policy of the Polish government may have had little impact on this factor. Moreover, the distributional effects of taxes and transfers were slightly weaker in Poland than in France. An increase in the scale of acceptance of the inequality level in Poland over the past few years is noteworthy. In France, the public opposition to inequality is growing, even though income inequality is lower than in many European countries.
Knowledge spillovers and innovation: analysis of the relationships between service centres and MSMEs from the regional perspective
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Klimek, Jordan; Łobacz, Katarzyna
The innovativeness of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) is dependent on accessibility to appropriate knowledge resources that enable creation of new market offers. Due to inherent limitations related to the possibilities of investing in the acquisition or creation of new knowledge, smaller entities may benefit from the proximity of large companies, especially multinational corporations, which are actively involved in new knowledge creation, and this knowledge has the ability to spill over. The flow of knowledge from service centres to local smaller companies has the potential to stimulate innovativeness in regional service functions, creating opportunities for paper is to analyse the impact of the flow of knowledge from service centres to MSMEs as a result of interactions between them. For this purpose, empirical data from quantitative research carried out by the research team in 2016 on a representative sample of 1,100 micro small and medium-sized enterprises in the Zachodniopomorskie (West Pomerania) voivodeship were used. The analysis shows that service centres can have a positive impact on the innovativeness of companies in the regions in which they are located, provided that there is a flow of knowledge as a result of direct transfer or personal interactions.
Salaries and the logic of national income distribution in a market economy – described using a simple model
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Żyżyński, Jerzy
The level of prosperity available is the value of what is produced in the economy. This is a general truth, while the level of well-being of community members is a consequence of the value added and the rules and mechanisms of national income distribution. The purpose of the paper is to show the macroeconomic principles of the division of the generated GDP value, based on the example of a simple model of the economy in a classic style: the economy is presented as the Great Bakery, which produces loaves of bread shared between employees and its owner, the Baker. The author uses this model to demonstrate the consequences of the division of the generated surplus, which is the Baker’s profit from three sources: development-oriented investments and the savings associated with them, the public sector and exportation. The author shows the structural consequences of reducing wages and shifting the tax burdens to the employees. He proves that the reduction of labor costs should be accompanied by an increase in the tax burdens imposed on companies – the Baker in his model. These rules of division have macroeconomic consequences and the author shows the effects for Poland’s position in a group of countries, presented as international comparisons (mainly OECD countries). The author shows that one of the key factors determining prosperity is the place of industry in the product development cycles produced by the global division of production. The amount of added value obtained at various stages of these production cycles is illustrated by the so-called smile curve. The author shows the international division of labor has led to the location of the industries of post-communist countries, including Poland, around the minimum of this curve. This causes the average level of wages and, consequently, welfare to be low. The analysis leads to the conclusion that a policy of structural changes is needed, one that will shape this division so that the country regains full production cycles and thus strengthens its economy. The author discusses the simplified thesis formulated by Jeffrey Sachs that sustainable development is the most important for prosperity. The author justifies the thesis that it is not so much development as the amount of added value generated by industry and the mechanisms of its distribution, and points out that, as Justin Yifu Lin observes, it is the structural changes which will lead to an increase in added value and modifications in the principles of its distribution, so as to increase social well-being.
The allocation of participatory budgeting funds within the context of population ageing and social inequalities
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Wetoszka, Piotr
In Brazil in the late 1980s, participatory budgeting was introduced to help develop deprived neighbourhoods. Modern European cities must face environmental and social threats that cause intra-urban inequalities to grow, especially with respect to the elderly. Local governments are urged to reformulate their policy agendas to withstand these trends. Is participatory budgeting not becoming a threat to tackling these issues rather than a solution as it originally was? To address this question, the intra-urban concentration of funds must be investigated. Do neighbourhoods with a higher share of the elderly – less politically active yet emotionally bound to their surroundings – tend to get less funding, as the theory of elite capture could suggest? While this question has been discussed in literature, neither the intra-urban age composition nor the specificity of Polish participatory budgets was considered. The overall goal of the study was to investigate the relationship between the age structure of neighbourhoods in Wrocław and their performance in participatory budgeting editions run between 2016–2017. By means of clustering and multiple correspondence analysis, a typical “winner” of the two editions can be determined. It is a neighbourhood incorporated into the city at later stages of suburbanisation, with single-family housing and an above-average share of residents aged 25–44. The analysis performed does not reveal any similar connections for other types of neighbourhoods, including those with above-average shares of the elderly. It is safe to argue that territorial city expansion and age-related inter-city differences cannot be seen independently of each other.
Political stability as a factor affecting growth in agricultural sub-Saharan African countries
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Świerczyńska, Katarzyna; Kaczmarek, Filip; Kryszak, Łukasz
The agricultural countries of sub-Saharan Africa remain the least economically advanced region of the world, with the relatively lowest quality of life. The agricultural sector plays a particularly important role in the economies of these countries. However, it is underdeveloped as a result of factors such as inadequate agricultural policy, institutional instability, chronic droughts, epidemics, deterioration of the environment, deteriorating infrastructure and insufficient investment in agricultural research in sub-Saharan Africa. The aim of the paper is to examine the impact of political stabilization on the economic growth in these countries. We were also inclined to determine what the interdependences were between political stability and factors important for agricultural activity for both agricultural and non-agricultural sub-Saharan counties in the 1995–2017 period. The methods used in this research included panel models with fixed effects, non-parametric tests and quantile regression. It was found that stabilizing the political situation and lowering the level of conflict risk contributed to the growth of GDP per capita in both agricultural and non-agricultural countries. However, in agricultural countries, it also influenced the modernization of agricultural production methods and a shift in the proportion of agricultural production in the total volume of imports and exports. Furthermore, it was found that political stability contributed to a greater extent to the improvement of GDP per capita in the lowest income countries.
A new institutional orientation of the development of science, knowledge and human capital in Poland versus integrated development
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Woźniak, Michał Gabriel
The author of the paper demonstrates that in order to overcome contemporary developmental threats, it is necessary to shift towards a new model of the knowledge-based economy. The features of this model are compared with both the American model of the innovation-driven economy and the European model of the knowledge-based economy. Against this specific background, the drawbacks are presented of reforms carried out in the knowledge sector in Poland since 1990. The focus is placed on an analysis of the reforms in science and higher education implemented in Poland since late 2018. Despite the fact that it was based on recommendations of the new public management system, the author considers not only the strengths but also the weaknesses of the approach, and the fact that the latter may prove to be an obstacle in the modernisation of human capital, which is to effectively harmonise development goals in all spheres of human existence and activity. The author calls for the following solutions to limit the drawbacks referred to above: inviting an observer to the University Council in an advisory capacity, launching a path of individual-oriented interdisciplinary research grants, introducing a reliable process for the university and its organisational units to account for the actual implementation of previously declared programmes of scientific development, student teaching and transference of own achievements, mandating and standardisation of student appraisals in teaching programmes, development of a criterion matrix as a reference for promotions related to teaching achievements, enhancing the status of awards for teaching excellence, with obligatory and permanent monitoring of management procedures at universities in order to reduce bureaucracy.
Inclusive development. How is Poland doing in comparison to other OECD countries?
(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2020) Szymańska, Anita; Zielenkiewicz, Małgorzata
Inclusive development is a multifaceted conception, which makes it difficult to measure. Recent years, however, have brought some proposals for measuring this phenomenon, which opens up new opportunities to deepen the knowledge of how countries are doing in making their economic and social progress more inclusive. The aim of the paper is to examine the level of advancement of inclusive development in Poland in comparison to other OECD countries. The main hypothesis states that the development in Poland is less inclusive than the OECD average. The research covers data from 30 countries (OECD members, excluding the countries where such data were unavailable), and is based on the OECD’s proposal of measurement. The study was conducted with the use of data normalisation into unified indices, taxonomic methods (cluster analysis based on the Ward hierarchic method), and comparative analysis. The results indicate areas of improvement for Poland. These are issues connected with the functioning of the labour market (the level of labour productivity, employment ratio, earnings dispersion), access to loans for starting or expanding businesses, but also life expectancy, wealth distribution, early childhood education and care, and, most of all, characteristics related to the area of governance, such as trust in the government, and voter turnout.

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